An Overview of Chinas One-Child Policy

Chinas one-child policy was established by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in 1979 to restrict communist Chinas population growth and limited couples to having only one child. Although designated a temporary measure, it remained in effect for more than 35 years. Fines, pressures to abort a pregnancy, and even forced sterilization of women accompanied second or subsequent pregnancies. The policy was not an all-encompassing rule because it was restricted to ethnic Han Chinese living in urban areas. Citizens living in rural areas and minorities living in China were not subject to the law.   Unintended Effects of the One-Child Law There have long been reports  that officials have forced women pregnant without permission to have abortions and have levied steep fines on families violating the law. In 2007 in the southwestern Guangxi Autonomous Region of China,  riots broke out as a result, and some people may have been killed, including population control officials. The Chinese have long had a preference for male heirs, so the one-child  rule  caused many problems for female infants:  abortion, out-of-country adoption, neglect, abandonment, and even infanticide were known to occur to females. Statistically, such Draconian family planning has resulted in the disparate (estimated) ratio of 115 males for every 100 females among babies born.  Normally, 105 males are naturally born for every 100 females. This  skewed ratio in China creates the problem of a generation of young men not having enough women to marry and have their own families, which has been speculated may cause future unrest in the country. These forever bachelors will not have a family to care for them in their old age either, which could put a strain on future government social services. The one-child rule has been estimated to have reduced population growth in the country of nearly 1.4 billion (estimated, 2017) by as much  as 300 million  people over its first 20 years. Whether the male-to-female ratio eases with the discontinuation of the one-child policy will come clear over  time. Chinese Now Allowed to Have Two Children Though the one-child policy may have had the goal of preventing the countrys population of spiraling out of control, after several decades, there were concerns over its cumulative demographic effect, namely the country having  a shrinking labor pool and smaller young population to take care of the number of elderly people in ensuing decades. So in 2013, the country eased the policy to allow some families to have two children. In late 2015, Chinese officials announced the scrapping the policy altogether, allowing all couples to have two children.   Future of Chinas Population Chinas  total fertility rate  (the number of births per  woman) is 1.6,  higher than slowly declining Germany at 1.45 but lower than the U.S. at 1.87 (2.1 births per woman is the replacement level of fertility, representing a stable population, exclusive of migration). The effect of the two-child rule hasnt made the population decline stabilize completely, but the law is young yet.

Essay on Traditional vs Distance Education - 4055 Words

Education is an essential element in societies throughout the world. For many years education has been provided in classrooms on campuses worldwide, but there has been a change made to the conventional method of classroom learning. With the advancements in technology, education has been restructured so that it may be accessible to everyone through taking courses online. Distance learning takes place when the teacher and student are separated from one another due to their physical location and technology is used to communicate instructions to the student and to communicate feedback to the instructor. The virtual classroom is one of the various forms of technology used as an alternative to the traditional classroom settings. Other†¦show more content†¦According to Fox (1998), what is in dispute is not whether distance education is ideal, but whether it is good enough to merit a university degree, and whether it is better than receiving no education at all. He alludes to an argument that states students learn far too little when the teachers personal presence is not available because the student has more to learn from the teacher than the texts. Thus, in order for the student to be taught well, does the teacher have to be personally present? Many advocates of distance education are ardent about their venue and very critical of traditional education. These online education devotees view traditional classes as being unchangeable, inflexible, teacher-centered, and static (Fitzpatrick 2001). However, proponents argue that many simply would not be able to get a degree without distance educationÂâ€"the full-time police officer, the mother of four, or the individual living in a rural area approximately 100-200 miles away from any educational institution. Many individuals desperately need distance education courses because they have jobs, families, civic responsibilities. They are thirsting. But some want us to say, Sorry you dont want to drink the water there, but we cant bottle our fresh spring water, so youll have to come here or drink nothing (Fox, 1998, p. 5). Proponents contend that distance education is as good as traditional education. In other words, learning occursShow MoreRelated Distance Learning vs. Traditional Edu cation Essay2568 Words   |  11 Pagesin the classroom and online and she has written about her experiences with distance learning, also known as e-Learning, or online learning. In reference to the difference between the two types of classes she writes, â€Å"The two experiences are as different as a wedding reception and a rave† (Laird). With the growing popularity of distance education the question in many people’s minds is, â€Å"Do online classes and traditional classes have the same standards?† Since both types of courses are held in differentRead MorePreserving the Learning Process682 Words   |  3 Pagesthe Web? There is a dispute among experts that traditional learning is the best way of preserving learning process, but other models are beginning to gain attention and respect, with distance learning leading the way. When comparing learning an equal course in a traditional framework to a online learning framework, students often express higher satisfaction from the online learning, and rate the learning as more successful than the traditional framework. It has also been argued that on line learningRead MoreOnline Learning Vs. Online Education1372 Words   |  6 PagesOnline education is growing in popularity as more colleges and universities offer alternative enrollment programs. While there may be advantages and disadvantages of online learning. The advantages outweigh the disadvantages, especially for those who may face obstacles in pursuing a college education. Online education can be an alternative means to classroom instruction. Online instruction allows students to have a flexible s chedule while taking college courses. Moreover, flexibility and convenienceRead MoreOnline Education vs Traditional Education1666 Words   |  7 PagesOnline Education vs. Traditional Education Nowadays, with the technology furtherance and the increased use of the internet, online education has gained significant acceptance and popularity all over the world. Not too long ago, online education offered no competition to traditional education .Today, with more choices being offered online, traditional education is now facing a number of challenges in every level. This has as a result, the competition between those two educational programs, havingRead MoreThe Value of Online Learning1019 Words   |  5 PagesThe Value of Online Learning The nursing profession today is increasingly seeing staffing shortages. Online learning and distance education is a way that colleges have tried to fix the problem. The online programs available today offer working adults the opportunity to advance their degree while still maintaining their current job. The value of online education has increased amongst nurses who want to advance their profession that is constantly moving towards advanced technologies. One of theRead MoreEssay on Distance Learning vs. the Traditional Classroom1550 Words   |  7 PagesDistance Learning vs. the Traditional Classroom Non-traditional students are finding it easier and easier to maintain a job, a family, and pursuing a college career at the same time. This is possible because more and more non-traditional students are receiving an education using distance learning, as opposed to traditional, in-the-classroom teaching. Distance learning is basically taking college level, credit-bearing courses via the Internet. One of the most obvious advantages of distanceRead MoreEssay on Distance Learning vs. Traditional Classroom Comparative1573 Words   |  7 PagesDistance Learning vs. the Traditional Classroom Non-traditional students are finding it easier and easier to maintain a job, a family, and pursuing a college career at the same time. This is possible because more and more non-traditional students are receiving an education using distance learning, as opposed to traditional, in-the-classroom teaching. Distance learning is basically taking college level, credit-bearing courses via the Internet. One of the most obvious advantages of distanceRead MoreOnline Education Vs. Traditional Education1221 Words   |  5 PagesBenefits of Online Education Factions and supporters of online education express many advantages of online education compared to old-style classroom instruction. First, enrollment options are offered to each student to study online for most degree plans, with a flexible enrollment option and from any location, free from a competitive student classroom environment (Frame et al., 2015). Second, online education provides the student the option to work their assignments from home or any location atRead MoreOn-Line Teaching vs Traditional Teaching1302 Words   |  6 PagesTraditional Teaching vs Online Teaching Nowadays, education becomes one of the important things in human life. Most of the individual in the earth is aware to obtain the education. Besides that, every country always concern on developing the quality of the education to improve the human resources. If the quality of human resources of a country is good, indeed, the quality of that country will be good too. As the matter of fact, we cannot deny that the improvement of technology really influenceRead MoreDistance Learning: Emerging Technologies vs. Traditional Class Instruction953 Words   |  4 PagesDistance Learning: Emerging Technologies vs. Traditional Class Instruction High pace of life and time span has changed many aspects of learning. Distance education is new model of teaching and learning having the power to improve educational outcomes dramatically. As a result, many people are asking how to scale-up scattered, successful islands of innovation into universal improvements in schooling (Dede 1998). Undertaking syst emic reform (sustained, large-scale, simultaneous innovation in curriculum

A Responsible Government Must Act to Protect Its Citizens Free Essays

‘Freedom of expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic society and one of the basic conditions for its progress and for each individual’s self-fulfilment’ (Robertson G. , as cited in Petley 2009). The growing concern caused by possible abuse of censorship in modern societies has raised numerous debates in regards to an appropriate balance between censorship and freedom of expression. We will write a custom essay sample on A Responsible Government Must Act to Protect Its Citizens or any similar topic only for you Order Now This essay will argue that notwithstanding the fact that liberty of speech should hold a central place in today’s world in order to be consistent with democratic values and public interest, nonetheless this right can never be absolute due to possible repercussions resulting eventually in possible social chaos. Therefore, government’s interference in some cases is necessary to not only preserve the balance against certain rights, but also to comply with general duties involving responsibility for national security, protection of its citizens and prevention of public disorder or crime within the country. The scope of this essay will focus on defining censorship, analysing its function and most common forms as well as examining possible justifications and consequences of imposing restrictions on the public’s freedom of expression. Censorship gives governing bodies the right to not only control exchanged information, opinions and ideas but also allows to examine different forms of communication including but not limited to, press, TV, radio broadcastings or Internet, usually in pursuance of suppressing objectionable or offensive material. This right has inevitably been a hallmark of authoritarian regimes throughout the history where absence of democratic values makes it easier for government to impose repressing conditions on citizens (Petley, 2009). The Most effective form of controlling undesirable contents was prevention from ever being produced at all, what would probably be met nowadays with a wide objection across democratic countries (Petley, 2009). Censorship though is still present and exercised across different societies where expressions can often be circumscribed because they are deemed obscene, unpatriotic or immoral. From critical point of view imposing too many restrictions on a public’s right to free speech will create an intimidating environment which eventually under such pressure incline citizens to restrain themselves and discourage from a freedom of expression (Petley,2009). While this kind of suppression would seem conflicting with the values of a free country, it must be noted that certain issues are worthy of censorship and action is needed to be taken in order to provide appropriate protection to society as a whole. However, from historical point of view as well as today’s events surrounding censorship, it can be derived that very often authorities have tendency to abuse restraining power without having appropriate justification for their actions. The most common areas affected by excessive censorship are press, media, art and literature. These things are responsible for shaping people’s views, providing information and influencing public opinions. Considering that neither democracy nor freedom can be preserved without keeping the public properly informed, press nonetheless can be harmful not only for national security but also young impressionable citizens (Petley,2009). Therefore, governments should act in accordance with its duties to protect the citizens and maintain stability in the country. Unfortunately, this is not always the case, as often their power is abused by exercising censorship in extreme forms. For example intimidation of journalists is common and an increasing problem nowadays in developing countries which is one of the concerns conflicting with an appropriate execution of the law (Petley, 2009). Although some argue that press is essential during the times of fear and crisis in order to keep the public informed about current situation, authorities often use different forms of intimidation to prevent journalists from investigating events, such as in war zones, by excluding them, harassing or even attacking (Petley 2009). Destruction of art and literature as well as prohibition of publishing and accessing certain types of works are yet other examples of inappropriate and overused censorship infringing public’s right to know. Presented approach of misused right to censor results in impairing the flow of information, repress important data, and restraining disagreement (Graber, 2003). However, in the light of today’s claims for freedom of expression the question arises though when censorship could actually be considered appropriate and justifiable? The most problematic part of censorship is probably determining what deserves to be censored in the first place. As much as the use of censorship can inevitably be abused, it is also possible for speech to cross the line and express offensive or harmful intent which shows that there are situations in which society could actually benefit from certain restrictions. Although in order to justify imposed restrictions there must be reasonable grounds for it (Petley,2009). The problem must clearly be seen as a threat or danger to the individual, certain groups or society as a whole. Some opinions or ideas can be identified as threatening, immoral or offensive and as a result seriously affect a wider group of people which makes it difficult for governments to avoid censorship in such an instance. Hate speech is one of the examples where freedom of expression needs to be appropriately regulated not only to protect minorities from serious racial hatred and prejudice but also to avoid acts of violence being a possible response to such behaviour (Petley,2009). Another problem arises at times of war, where free press is considered to be essential in keeping a public informed about current situation, although government must then act to protect sensitive information about military missions or anti-terrorist operations, from the enemy. In this case ‘the fewer people with access to state secrets the better’ (McMullen, 1972). Some standards regarding the censorship and freedom of speech are therefore needed to protect society. Thus Article 10 of Human Rights Act states that while freedom of expression is a foundation of a democratic country, the exercise of these freedoms must be subjected to certain restrictions regulated by law in order to ensure public safety, national security and protection of individual rights of people within the society. The censorship inevitably meets with abundant objection in democratic societies, however this essay has shown that there are some exceptions where imposing restrictions is essential to protect citizens. It is for government to comply with duties it has towards the public to ensure that appropriate and justifiable actions are undertaken. The abuse of neither the right to censor nor free speech can be exercised within the democratic society. Therefore the appropriate approach for balancing censorship with a freedom of expression should be undertaken where free speech should be used in civilised and logical way and censorship imposed only where absolutely necessary How to cite A Responsible Government Must Act to Protect Its Citizens, Papers

Agency theory free essay sample

Introduction â€Å"It is the things towards which we have the stronger natural inclination that seem to us more opposed to the mean† Aristotle (2004, p. 47) The documentary ? Inside Job? portrays a riveting account of a financial industry festered with greed and conflicts of interest. As bankers gambled creatively with the life savings of laymen investors, ratings agencies and regulators closed their eyes to the full picture, whilst scholars supported the development of over the counter derivatives designed to safeguard the ever-increasing rate of subprime mortgages. Beginning in mid-2007 the largest American financial crisis since the Great Depression began to unfold (Jickling 2010) with thousands of homeowners defaulting on their mortgages (Pinyo 2008). The consequences were to be felt around the world and the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), as it came to be known, soon had national governments scrambling to ? bail out? private institutions in effort to keep the financial industry afloat and mitigate the fallout from digressing into pandemonium (Shah 2010, Sidelsky 2009). Inevitably, the pressing questions of governments, media and the public alike were how could it have gone this wrong and who was to be blamed? Shots were fired left, right and center, targeted at a range of factors from regulation and credit agencies to financial innovation and central banks. Particularly, the intertwined aspects of executive remuneration and the auspices of corporate governance (CG) were targeted as having failed to safeguard the company and incentivized risk-taking. The attacks were not only directed at ? institutional constructs? , a recurrent character was also the greedy banker and his apparent disregard for ethics and morality in pursuit of his own gain. As we enter the ? post-crisis? era, governments and regulators seek to redevelop regulations and standards to prevent the recurrence of a GFC. Generally however, their focus only addresses what is visible (Dobbin et al. 2010). The purpose of this thesis is to delve deeper and review the underlying theoretical construct of best practice CG mechanisms utilized today, agency theory (AT), a construct that has also been criticized as ? green lighting? a higher propensity towards risk, along with unethical and immoral behavior (Ghoshal 2005). This thesis therefore poses the questions: Did the agency theory prescriptions of corporate governance and directors’ financial literacy impact the risk profile of Scandinavian banks during the Global Financial Crisis? And are there differences in the moral and ethical perceptions of business majors in comparison to other majors? Based on hypotheses derived from AT and through the utilization of data on Scandinavian Banks‘ Thomas Rudiger Smith 7 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences board of directors and incentive plans, the thesis addresses the first part of the research question by investigating whether AT prescriptions contributed to the risk-taking behavior that propelled the GFC. Subsequently, the second part of the research question is analyzed on the basis of hypotheses grounded in the popular criticisms of AT in begetting immoral or unethical managers, and seeks to answer this question through a survey of ethical perceptions. Ultimately the result of the research question is discussed with a view to management education and moral philosophy. Prior to investigating these issues, it is important to understand the motivation driving the aims of this thesis. 2 Motivation The GFC has not only been a contentious topic for regulators, bankers and the media, business schools have also debated the causes and consequences in effort to find ways to better prepare their students for future challenges1. This debate, in combination with previous research on agency theory in banking (Smith et al. 2009) sparked the author‘s initial interest through the simple question â€Å"What role have agency theory prescriptions played in the crisis? †. What started as a simple question has evolved into this thesis, wherein the consequences and side-effects of the AT perspective is reviewed due to its prominent role in business education (Dobbin et al. 2010) and its potential relationship to the GFC. What further augmented the interest was the perceived simultaneous incapability of agency theory as a descriptive theory of CG (Dalton et al. 1998) in combination with its strong normative capability, and potential side-effects. Essentially the question that remained after the review of scholarly writings on agency theory, was whether the side-effects of encouraging risk-taking and the presumed postulation of creating immoral managers in fact was true, and if so, what would this mean for management education. Out of this emerged the research questions under investigation here, for which the obvious choice for data collection was the banking industry as both greed and excessive risk-taking have been argued as causes of the crisis (Shah 2009). The specificity of the area of interest however meant that as opposed to much of the current business research on the GFC, this thesis has never intended to provide input for how financial regulation should be formulated. Rather, the goal has been to highlight the potential consequences for management education, given the lack of research herein even though many future bankers will be the product of business schools. Additionally, the specificity of the research questions means that Discussions on the impact of the financial crisis on management education were observed at a CEMS Executive Board meeting in Singapore in May 2010. CEMS is an alliance of 26 leading world-wide business schools. 1 Thomas Rudiger Smith 8 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences the structure must be qualified properly before commencing, as it handles two simultaneously independent and intertwined questions. The subsequent section will thus introduce the thesis structure. 3 Structure As a result of the research questions and the data collections, the structure of the thesis will make a topical split when deemed necessary to avoid confusion between the treated data and hypotheses. The structure for the thesis will therefore set out accordingly, first by outlining the context of the GFC, thereafter assumptions and limitations will be presented in order to demarcate the research area. Subsequently, the theoretical background will be introduced, first highlighting the core theoretical Figure 1 Structure foundation of agency theory and subsequently moving into the two different consequences under investigation – risk-taking and ethics. Hereafter the hypotheses for each consequence will be introduced, which will be followed by a joint methodology section. Thereafter the thesis is divided, first focusing solely on risk-taking and governance mechanisms, their analysis and partial conclusion, followed by the analysis of the second strand, the ethical hypotheses. Finally once all hypotheses have been investigated, these two strands will be integrated in the discussion and the findings will be summed up in the conclusion. Throughout the thesis, a graphical representation of the structure (Figure 1) will indicate shifts from one section to another. Having outlined the motivation and structure, the following section seeks to qualify the predominant focus on governance and greed with respect to the GFC and their connection to the economic theory. Thomas Rudiger Smith 9 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences 4 Greed, Governance the Financial Crisis 4. 1 Greed The populist cause of the GFC is greed, (Pinyo 2008, Guina 2008) wherein investment bankers gambled with customer funds (Shah 2010). Credit was cheap, needed to be lent out and with no more prime borrowers, bankers went to sub-prime borrowers to cash in more money (Jarvis 2009). The gamble was almost a safe bet provided housing prices kept rising, but when the housing bubble began to constrict and interest rates rose, sub-prime borrowers began to default (Jickling 2010, Time 2011). Though acknowledged as a contributing factor (Anderson 2008), the events preceding the GFC are too multifarious to be attributed to greed alone. 4. 2 Governance 4. 2. 1 Distorted Bonus Bonanza A bonus culture that effectively espoused excessive risk-taking did not help. The potential for upside gains were significant and the downside costs negligible, or so it seemed (Sidelsky 2009). As noted by Krugman (2008) in the New York Times, „The pay system †¦lavishly rewards the appearance of profit, even if that appearance later turns out to have been an illusion?. Variable pay packages that tied managerial wealth to the wealth of shareholders were commonplace. Rajan noted back in 2005 that these created distorted incentives and promoted risk taking, even proclaiming that „They may create a greater probability of a catastrophic meltdown? (p. 318). Lord Turner, head of FSA, would later support Rajan in claiming that the bonus culture indeed had an effect on the financial crisis (BBC 2010). Their arguments were also supported academically by Bechmann and Raaballe on a sample of Danish banks (2010). Rajan (2005) and Blundell-Wignall et al. (2008) argued that the inherent problem of incentive schemes was that they were not risk adjusted, effectively accentuating risk-taking behavior. The hefty bonuses accumulated by bank managers were also targeted for criticism in the post-GFC finger-pointing game, as politicians either questioned or sought regulatory action on bonus levels (Arentoft 2010, Condon 2010). However Sidelsky (2009) contended that bankers, though also selfinterested, acted largely in accordance with the adage of the system – profit maximization. Thomas Rudiger Smith 10 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences 4. 2. 2 Corporate Governance Failure Closely related to the issue of bonus schemes is the perspective that contemporary CG has failed in safeguarding the firm (Jickling 2010, Blundell-Wignall et al. 2008). Foong (2009) also pointed to weak CG mechanisms to explain the effectual failure of the market. OECD (2010) provided similar critique, describing a system that failed to provide and cultivate sound business practices. Professor Hasung Jang posited that like the 1997 Asian financial crisis, shortcomings in CG was a root cause of the GFC (Jang in Sharma 2008). Others point specifically to the general ineffectiveness of boards to stem incessant risk-taking behavior (Dobbin et al. 2010, Abdullah 2006). The governance best practices that may have failed, the distorted bonus culture and the greedy manager share common ground through the perspective of agency theory, a facet that remains unaddressed by regulators. 4. 3 The Connection to Economic Theory A less espoused argument for the cause of the GFC attacks the underlying economic theory that underpins the development of established governance mechanisms and may have adversely impacted the moral compass of business managers. Dobbin et al. (2010) noted that the political responses to the GFC have focused on the regulatory environment, ignoring the contributions of economic paradigms, particularly agency theory, in promulgating the wealth maximization environment that abetted the crisis. Daianu (in ALDE 2008) argued that the theoretical underpinnings of policies were problematic in general, and the principal-agent problem in particular fuelled the crisis. Policies based upon economic theories that expect humans to be rational and discount complex realities to achieve perfect models have essentially failed (The Times 2010). Priester (in ALDE 2008) criticized the proclivity of business models towards short term wealth maximization as „fundamentally flawed? on the grounds of being both „economically obsolete? and „morally indefensible? (p. 38) by transferring all power to the shareholder. From an ethics perspective, he further argues that the permeation of economic theory has dehumanized business and only heralded innovation for the purpose of private gains, when in fact â€Å"innovation [is] for-or-about [serving] the substantive interest of the Human Person† (p. 38). In essence, the crisis may not only be a consequence of poorly constructed institutions of control, but rather of poorly constructed financial theories supporting and dictating the development of Thomas Rudiger Smith 11 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences these institutions (Kou 2009). Therefore this thesis investigates whether the agency theoretical prescriptions added to more risk with regards to the GFC and whether it creates immoral managers. Before delving into the theoretical background, hypotheses, methodology and data testing, it is relevant to define the appropriate assumptions as well as demarcate the research area through some limitations. 5 Assumptions Throughout the thesis a number of assumptions are made, none of which are believed to distort the overall picture, though they may in fact have an influence on the generalizability of the thesis (Bryman et al. 2003). For both areas it is assumed that the constructs measure the intended effects. Through the qualification of measures by previous studies investigating similar variables, the assumption is assessed to be fair. It is additionally assumed for both data sets that Agency Theory is part of education and financial literacy ergo also means a familiarity and understanding of agency theory. This assumption although grand in its scope is not unrealistic, as noted by Zajac et al. (2004) and Dobbin et al. (2010). A more questionable assumption is made with regards to the impact of education. Although some like Albert et al. (2010) highlight that education has lasting effects, it is impossible given the research design to discern between self-selection and actual impact of education. The relationship between formation and actions must therefore be treated with regards to this assumption. 6 Limitations As with any other, this thesis is limited by timeline, scope and scale which confines the ability to investigate all possible variables and contributing factors. Unlike AT, alternative models of CG, such as stewardship and stakeholder theory (Lan et al. 2010), have yet to gain a solid foothold in the practical literature and enactment of CG (Daily et al. 2003)2. As such, reflecting the real life context, the thesis does not directly investigate these alternatives, though they are referred to as points of discussion. Amongst the many potential consequences of agency theory, this thesis will focus on two due to their perceived relevance to the GFC. As noted, whilst it is acknowledged that there were many 2 An overview and short critique of these models and the director primacy model is available in Appendix 17. 1. Thomas Rudiger Smith 12 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences contributing factors to the GFC, the intention of this thesis is to empirically analyze the consequences of agency theory. As such, the GFC serves as the context for analysis rather than the object of investigation. The banks are not disregarded however, given that their societal role makes the application of AT prescriptions within the industry all the more intriguing. Nevertheless it is acknowledged that the findings of this thesis related to CG will be derived from a distinct and heavily regulated industry, which may limit their utility (Battilossi 2009). Upon investigating the second research objective, it is accepted that temporal limitations made the assessment of moral philosophy development challenging and the cogency of results may be restrained by the difficulty in establishing the degree to which individual moral development is influenced by business education and not also self-selection (Pfeffer 2005). Overall however these primary assumptions and limitations, by virtue of their academic support and conscious inclusion, are not believed to fundamentality compromise eventual findings. Having established these caveats, the thesis will return to outlining the connections between the presented causes of the GFC and economic theory. But before qualifying the consequences of AT on risk and morality, it is imperative to first delineate the concept itself. 7 Theoretical Background 7. 1 Agency Theory The 1976 article ? Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure? by Jensen and Meckling helped establish AT as the dominant theoretical framework of the CG literature, and position shareholders as the main stakeholder (Lan et al. 2010, Daily et al. 2003). The adoption of the agency logic increased during the 1980‘s as companies started replacing the hitherto corporate logic of managerial capitalism with the Figure 2 Structure perception of managers as agents of the shareholders (Zajac et al. 2004). The subsequent stream of Thomas Rudiger Smith 13 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences literature would break with the tradition of largely treating the firm as a black box and the assumption that the firm always sought to maximize value (Jensen 1994). AT addressed what had become a growing concern, that management engaged in empire building and possessed a general disregard for shareholder interest, what Michael Jensen called â€Å"the systematic fleecing of shareholders and bondholders† (1989, p. 64), through providing prescriptions as to how the principal should control the agent to curb managerial opportunism and self-interest (Perrow 1986, Daily et al. 2003). As the market reacted positively to this change in logic, with time the agency approach became institutionalized in the practice of CG, within business education, research and media (Zajac et al. 2004; Shapiro 2005, Lan et al. 2010). Out of the agency logic grew two closely related streams of research; the mathematically complex Principal-Agent literature and the more practice oriented Positive Agency Theory (Shapiro 2005). Common to both is shareholder primacy, wherein the principal is positioned both as the residual claimant and main stakeholder. Although the influence of Principal-Agent theory cannot be denied (Asher et al. 2005), the practical and empirical nature and implications of Positive Agency Theory on CG situate this stream as the main concern of this thesis. 7. 1. 1 Foundations As any theory, AT is based in a number of assumptions about man, which have a significant impact on the formation of the theory (Davis et al. 1997). The most common belief is that AT is based in the economic model of man (e. g. Brennan 1994, Perrow 1986, Shapiro 2005). Jensen and Meckling denounce this interpretation however, by arguing that the theory is grounded in what they call REMM – the Resourceful, Evaluative, Maximizing Model (Jensen et al. 1994). They argue that the REMM most closely replicates human action, and that the economic model of man is a simplified version that does not reflect the spectrum of human behavior. However, the extent to which these two models are actually different is questioned by Brunner (1996) and Tourish et al. (2010), who treat them as equals (see also table 1 for comparison and overview of assumptions). Their arguments are based in the fact that the REMM, although accepting that wealth may not be the only goal, will willingly substitute goods for monetary rewards (Baker et al. 1988). In addition, despite the fact that the REMM can act with altruism, it can only do so simultaneously with individual self-maximization3. As such pure altruistic behavior without ulterior 3 Self-interested altruism although creating a possibility of other-regarding behavior – does only so given a positive Thomas Rudiger Smith 14 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences motives cannot take place. Thereby the REMM is largely similar to the economic model of man, which assumes that humans are rational, selfishly motivated and will behave opportunistically, even ruthlessly, whenever advantageous (Ghoshal 2005, Daily et al. 2003). Herein, actions are undertaken according to selfinterest (Fama 1980) and opportunistic behavior is fostered when monitoring contracts and relationships becomes difficult and costly due to bounded rationality and information asymmetry (Perrow 1986, Donaldson 1990). Opportunism is therefore central to this view of man, where an actor‘s promise to do a certain action is worthless if the circumstances of the promised action changes before the action is carried out (Heath 2009). As such, changes in behavior are also driven by changes in incentives (Prendergast 1999) and behavior is directed by maximizing self-interest under game-theoretical like conditions (Perrow 1986). Human Assumptions REMM Economic Man Bounded Rational Rational Maximizer based on thorough evaluation Maximizer Self-Interested Self-Interested Actions driven by Incentives Motivated by incentives Opportunistic if beneficial Opportunistic with guile Will substitute goods if beneficial (not driven exclusively by extrinsic rewards) Altruistic if beneficial Resourceful – innovative when facing constraints and opportunities Focus on extrinsic rewards Not other-regarding (Resourceful) 4 Table 1 Comparison of REMM and Economic Model of Man Regardless of whether Jensen and Meckling‘s (1994) postulation that the REMM guides AT, Table 1 shows that the REMM in fact have few differences from the Economic Model of Man (Brunner et al. 1996). Bearing in mind the lack of self-interested altruism and the slightly stronger focus on extrinsic motivators in the Economic Model of Man, arguments against this representation of benefit to the individual. Thereby self-interested altruistic behavior can potentially be reduced to an intrinsic motivation (Brunner et al. 1996). 4 The Economic Man is like the REMM perceived to be resourceful, yet the literature is generally less focused on this aspect of his/her behavior as opposed to the other notions (Brunner et al. 1996). Thomas Rudiger Smith 15 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences human behavior must then also be applicable to the REMM model (see section 7. 3. 1) With the understanding that man is self-interested, ever opportunistic and driven by incentives, AT addresses the effect of having this man as a manager in the modern corporation by providing prescriptions to taming him. But what is the modern corporation in the eyes of AT and what are these effects and prescriptions? 7. 1. 2 The Modern Corporation, Effects Prescriptions in Agency Theory 7. 1. 2. 1 The Modern Corporation is Separation of Ownership and Control The model of the modern corporation used in AT is driven by the development in the mid 20th Century, where the corporation grew in size, complexity and in the need for external capital. This, combined with an increased stock market, a limit on managerial wealth and a need for efficient risk allocation (Fama 1980, Fama et al. 1983, Demsetz et al. 1997), meant an increase in the diffused ownership of companies amongst shareholders. As shareholders have a willingness to bear risk but do not necessarily possess the interest and time to actively manage the company (Brealey et al. 2008), a contractual relationship is created wherein an agent (manager) will manage the risk and control the company on behalf of the principal (shareholder), who is the residual claimant, risk bearer and owner of the company (Jensen et al. 1985, Fama et al. 1983). As such, the modern corporation is reduced to a ? nexus of contracts‘ between principals and agents and the separation of ownership and control is created (Jensen et al. 1976). 7. 1. 2. 2 The Effect of Conflict of Interest and Moral Hazard Given the separation of ownership and control, and the diverging risk profiles of the participating parties (Eisenhardt 1989, Jensen 1989), it cannot be expected that risk-averse managers (agents) will act in the interest of risk-neutral shareholders (principals) as it may not be in the manager‘s selfinterest to pursue shareholder wealth maximization (Bonazzi et. al. 2007, Lan et al. 2010, Demsetz et al. 1985). Jensen et al. (1985) argue that the three prominent problems with management that cause the conflict of interest are, 1) the choice of effort, 2) differential risk exposure, and 3) differential time horizon. The agency problem in separating ownership and control is therefore the assumed diverging goals of the ? cooperating parties? – the residual claimant and manager (Donaldson 1990, Hendrikse 2003). This inevitably increases the incentives for moral hazard and opportunistic Thomas Rudiger Smith 16 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences behavior as self-interest guides action (Demsetz et al. 1985). Moral hazard is central to AT, and is also referred to as hidden action or opportunistic behavior (Hendrikse 2003). However, hidden action refers specifically to the information asymmetry in the contractual relationship (Arrow 1968, Eisenhardt 1989), whereas opportunistic behavior is an inclination in the human (Jensen 1994)5. Moral hazard on the other hand, is the combination of these two terms together with the above described conflict of interest (Hendrikse 2003) and refers to the actual actions taken by the agent once the contract has been entered. The imperfect contract (Prendergast 1999) in the agency relationship makes the observation of true effort very difficult and as such causes the hidden action problem of asymmetric information (Arrow 1968). This inherently leads to an encouragement of moral hazard (Perrow 1986), where the principal will not know whether the agent has acted in accordance to the principal‘s interest (Shapiro 2005, Hendrikse 2003). It is therefore to be expected that the self-interested agent will shirk on the contract and carry out actions that are not in the interest of the principal (Hendrikse 2003, Eisenhardt 1989). Although moral hazard presumably is present in all types of relationships, Boyd et al. (1998) researched the possibilities for moral hazard in banking and found two possible areas of moral hazard. One is the relationship between the bank and their borrowers, the other is the moral hazard created from the cushion of the deposit insurance (John et al. 2000, Demsetz et al. 1997), as the deposit insurance reduces the interest from monitoring whilst simultaneously increasing the incentives for risk taking (Macey et al. 2003). Moral hazard is the exact problem that AT is designed to address through various mechanisms – most notable incentives and monitoring (Eisenhardt 1989). 7. 1. 2. 3 The Creation of Agency Costs The problem of moral hazard leads to costs for the firm associated with administering the contract, hereunder contracting, transaction, moral hazard and information costs – namely agency costs (Gomez-Mejia et al. 2005, Jensen et al. 1985). The level of the costs will depend on the ability of the principal to find an appropriate solution to reducing information asymmetries through measuring managerial performance, determining effective incentives, as well as implementing rules and Adverse Selection follows the same patterns as Moral Hazard, but deals with the selection of contracts and staff, and are more focused on pre-contractual areas of opportunistic behavior. Although a central part of agency theory, this section has less relevance for this thesis, and has therefore been described in the appendix 17. 2. 5 Thomas Rudiger Smith 17 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences regulations to limit unwanted behavior or moral hazard (Brickley et al. 1994, Gomez-Meija et al. 2005). Whilst achieving zero agency costs is practically impossible, as the marginal costs of doing so will eventually be higher than the accompanying benefits of perfect alignment (Jensen et al. 1976), monitoring and incentives intends to minimize them (Eisenhardt 1989, Jensen et al. 1985, Shapiro 2005)6. 7. 1. 2. 4 Monitoring and Incentives as Prescriptions of Agency Theory The proposed mechanisms for curbing moral hazard are generally monitoring and incentive contracts (Jensen 1993, Daily et al. 2003), where the board of directors (BOD) comprises the main monitoring mechanism. According to AT, they should act on behalf of the shareholders and hold foremost responsibility for the functioning of the firm, with the goal of reducing information asymmetries through ratifying and monitoring important decisions (Fama et al. 1983, Heath 2009, Shapiro 2005, Fama 1980). The BOD is therefore also responsible for controlling resource allocation and accompanying risks (Tufano 1998). The monitoring system provides an ex post control system (Jensen et al. 1976, Fama et al. 1983), where the extent of the monitoring in place will depend on the proclivities of management for opportunistic behavior and the costs and benefits related to its implementation (Jensen et al. 1976). The more effective the board is in obtaining information about agent behavior, the more likely the manager will be to act in the interest of the shareholder, and therefore fewer resources need be spent on aligning the interests through incentives (Hermalin et al. 1988, Eisenhardt 1989). Besides the BOD, incentives can be similarly employed to limit moral hazard on the part of the manager. The conflict of interest addressed earlier is in part caused by differing risk preferences, where managers are risk averse and shareholders risk-neutral. This often leads to contrasting predilections, where the manager will make less risky investments than preferred by the shareholders (Shapiro 2005, Eisenhardt 1989). This conflict can be mitigated by introducing a compensation scheme, in the form of a risk premium (Prendergast 1999), where rewards are based on outcome, commonly stock price (Hendrikse 2003). By tying part of managerial wealth to shareholder wealth, the incentive system can be utilized to create alignment between management and shareholders (Lan et al. 2010, Aulakh et al. 2000, Stroh et al. 1996). 6 Empirically speaking the possibility to accurately measure agency costs is near impossible, but the conceptual presence of these costs is what leads to the prescribed measures (Daily et al. 2003). Thomas Rudiger Smith 18 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Agency Theory Its Consequences In this way, the wage becomes a bribe and a condition from the principal to the agent in order to induce certain behavior aligned with the principal‘s interest (Prendergast 1999). However, a noted problem with performance based pay is that „dysfunctional behavioral responses where agents emphasize only those aspects of performance that are rewarded? is present (Prendergast 1999, p. 8). As such, just as the principal may learn which incentives work the best, the agent learns which aspects of performance the principal is interested in and primarily seeks to optimize these exact aspects (Shapiro 2005, Brickley et al. 1994). The consequence becomes a system where everything is driven towards meeting measurable targets and not necessarily towards creating real value and growth (Porter 1992). A summation of the modern corporation in the eyes of AT, the effects and the prescriptions can be made as follows; ? The Modern Corporation = The Separation of Ownership Control and a Nexus of Contracts, where shareholders are the owners. ? The Effect of Separation of Ownership and Control = Conflict of Interest, Moral Hazard Agency Costs. ? The Prescriptions of Control = Monitoring Incentives. Upon understanding AT, its assumptions and focus on shareholder primacy, it is relevant to also critically question these. Particularly, how do the AT prescriptions impact the risk-taking in banking? 7. 2 The Consequence of Risk Taking Aligning managerial interests with that of shareholders may seemingly make sense. However the usage of outcome based incentives packages and a shareholder aligned board as prescribed by AT may lead to increased risk levels (John et al. 2000). In order to comprehend why, one has to understand the consequence of the diverging risk interests between shareholders and debtholders. Here option theory can provide a relevant reasoning. Figure 3 Structure 7. 2. 1 Equity as a call option According to option theory, equity can be viewed as a call option on the firm‘s assets (Brealey et al. Thomas Rudiger Smith 19 M. Sc. FSM Master Thesis: Ag